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The following years saw a flood of similar titles, including Manhole , Parachute , and Popeye The later titles utilized multiple articulating screens to increase the difficulty for players. With two screens these games introduced basic resource management e. Green House was another popular two screen game in which players use clouds of pesticide spray to protect flowers from waves of attacking insects. Despite the early rush of archetypal titles, ultimately there was a general decline in fixed-cell games, due to their technical limitations, simplistic gameplay, and the rise of personal computers and handhelds the Game Boy ; correspondingly, this genre also declined.
A rare exception was Safebuster multi-screen in which the player protects a safe from a thief trying to blow it up. By the mid s, the strategy elements began to further evolve.
Early PC gaming examples include the Commodore 64 titles Gandalf the Sorcerer , a shooter with tower defense elements, and Imagine Software 's release Pedro. Pedro , a garden defense game, introduced new gameplay elements, including different enemy types as well as the ability to place fixed obstructions, and to build and repair the player's territory.
Rampart , released in , is generally considered to have established the prototypical tower defense. In addition, it has distinct phases of build, defend and repair. These are now staple gameplay elements of many games in the genre.
It was also one of the first multiplayer video games of its kind. While Rampart was popular, similar games were rarely seen until the widespread adoption of the computer mouse on the PC. Dungeon Keeper had players defend the Dungeon Heart, a gigantic gem at the centre of your dungeon, which, if destroyed, would cause the player to lose the game.
As real-time strategy games gained popularity in PC gaming , many introduced tower defense modes in their gameplay, particularly in multiplayer.
Between and , the genre became a phenomenon, due in part to the popularity of the tower defense mode in real time strategy games, but mainly due to the rise of Adobe Flash independent developers as well as the emergence of major smartphone app stores from Apple and Google. The first stand-alone browser games emerged in The genre's success also led to new releases on PC and video game consoles. GauntNet was released in April Zombies released in May was another highly popular tower defense which became a successful series on mobile devices.
With the arrival of Apple's App Store tower defense developers adapted quickly to the touchscreen interface and the titles were among the most downloaded, many of them ported directly from Flash. Among the more notable include Kingdom Rush , first released in , which sold more than seventeen million copies both on App store and Play store. By the end of the boom, most tower defense games were still stuck in the side scrolling, isometric, or top-down perspective graphical medium.
Iron Grip: Warlord , released in November, unsuccessfully pioneered the first person perspective shooter with the genre. Dungeon Defenders , released in October , was one of the first tower defense games to bring the genre to the third person perspective.
It sold over , copies in first two weeks of release [26] and over , copies by the end of The title Sanctum , and its sequel popularized the first person shooter hybrid that was pioneered by these earlier games. Anomaly: Warzone Earth released in introduced a variation of gameplay which has been described as "reverse tower defense", [29] "tower attack", [30] and "tower offense".
Sequels and other games have since experimented further with both styles of tower defense. Around this period the genre matured, gaining recognition as a distinct sub-genre of strategy games and returning in numerous upgraded versions. Chain Chronicle and CastleStorm were released in Plants vs. Zombies 2 came out and Prime World: Defenders featured deck-building mechanics. Deathtrap and Krinkle Krusher were first published in With the advent of social networking service applications, such as the Facebook Platform , tower defense has become a popular genre with titles such as Bloons TD and Plants vs.
Zombies Adventures making the transition to turn-based play. On the platform Roblox , many Tower Defense games have been created, the most notable being Tower Defense Simulator as well as the first famous one being Tower Battles These games are mostly 3D and multiplayer based, with features like matchmaking and elevators to pair users up.
What distinguishes tower defense base defending games from other base defending games such as Space Invaders , or other games where bases are defended is the player's ability to strategically place, construct or summon obstructive constructions and constructive obstructions in the path of attacking enemies. In a tower defense, the player's main character is often invincible, as their primary objective is the survival of the base rather than the player.
Many modern tower defense games evolved from real-time to turn-based, cycling through distinct gameplay phases such as build, defend, repair, and celebrate. Many games, such as Flash Element Tower Defense feature enemies that scamper through a "maze", which allows the player to strategically place "towers" for optimal effectiveness.
Often an essential strategy is "mazing", the tactic of creating a long, winding path of towers or "maze" to lengthen the distance the enemies must traverse to get past the defense. Sometimes "juggling" is possible by alternating between barricading an exit on one side and then the other side to cause the enemies to path back and forth until they are defeated.
Some games also allow players to modify the attack strategy used by towers to be able to defend for an even more tantalizingly reasonable price. The degree of the player's control or lack thereof in such games also varies, from games where the player controls a unit within the game world, to games where the player has no direct control over units at all, or even no control over the game whatsoever.
A common theme in tower defense games to have occasional "air" units which ignore the layout of the board i. Some tower defense games or custom maps also require the player to not only defend their own board but send out enemies to attack their opponents' game boards or opponent-controlled areas of a common game board in return. Such games are also known as tower wars game boards.
The corporation is reported to have started enforcing the trademark: in early , developers of games on Apple 's App Store reported receiving messages requiring name changes for their games, citing trademark violation.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Subgenre of strategy video game. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. Sell a living room coffee table made of exotic solid wood. This semi-precious wooden coffee table "Courbaril" was brought back from French Guiana in It is in very good condition and very rare, not to say not to be found in metropolitan France and even We also do tutoring from CP primary to baccalaureat's grade.
We remain at your disposal. Guadeloupe Scribe Business Administration is a leading young business in marketing, communication and press relation at your services. With a past experience in graphic design proficiency, the team is waiting to boost your business on the market undoubtedly. Our services Business bilingual secretary available to all types of businesses - Special business package November 16, Whatever your need in getting your projet done, or documents, we are experienced enough to provide you with the business communication level suitable to your need.
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SPE Monograph. Yew Mechanics of Hydraulic Fracturing. May Terra Nova. Bibcode : TeNov Block Caving Geomechanics 2nd ed. Journal of Hazardous Materials. Engineering Geology and Construction. Lee; Kuriyagawa, Michio Hydraulic fracturing stress measurements. Retrieved 2 November Coal Energy Systems. Sustainable World Series. Academic Press. Texas Monthly. Retrieved 23 September Retrieved 21 November What is the True Cost of Hydraulic Fracturing?
Journal of Environmental Sciences Program. Washington, D. The Ecologist. Retrieved 29 July National Public Radio. Times Leader. Retrieved 27 March Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved 4 December Energy in Depth. July Retrieved 21 December The Wall Street Journal subscription required. The Progressive. Retrieved 4 January Green Planet Films.
Archived from the original on 1 October The Tyee. Retrieved 20 October The Review of Regional Studies. Archived from the original PDF on 2 May Retrieved 3 March In our work to oppose fracking, the Park Foundation has simply helped to fuel an army of courageous individuals and NGOs,' or non-governmental organizations, said Adelaide Park Gomer, foundation president and Park heir, in a speech late last year.
Retrieved 23 February More than a quarter-century of efforts by some lawmakers and regulators to force the federal government to police the industry better have been thwarted, as E. Retrieved 1 May Retrieved 5 May The Times reviewed more than 30, pages of documents obtained through open records requests of state and federal agencies and by visiting various regional offices that oversee drilling in Pennsylvania.
Some of the documents were leaked by state or federal officials. October Public Health Review. Public Health England. Retrieved 19 January Archived from the original on 13 March September Resources Policy. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. Support to the identification of potential risks for the environment and human health arising from hydrocarbons operations involving hydraulic fracturing in Europe PDF Report.
European Commission. Retrieved 29 September J Pediatr Nurs. American Economic Review. Nature Energy. Bibcode : NatEn The Annals of Occupational Hygiene. Springer Reference. Conceptual model development using a generic Features, Events, and Processes FEP database for assessing the potential impact of hydraulic fracturing on groundwater aquifers, Advances in Geosciences, v.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved 16 September Hydrofracturing a horizontal Marcellus well may use 4 to 8 million gallons of water, typically within about 1 week. However, based on experiences in other major U.
Retrieved 17 September Professional Safety. Energy Procedia. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology. Bibcode : JCHyd. Natural Gas and the Transformation of the U. Joint Institute for Strategic Energy Analysis. How Does Fracking Work?
Retrieved 1 December Environmental Management. Bibcode : EnMan.. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. Retrieved 1 April Worldwatch Institute. Archived from the original PDF on 21 May Retrieved 24 May ABC Science. CiteSeerX CNN Money. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Bibcode : PNAS.. Energy Information Administration 16 May Energy Facts Explained". The Urban Lawyer. Zoning and Planning Law Report. Retrieved 16 October The International. Archived from the original on 21 March Retrieved 16 March Retrieved 26 March West Cape News. Retrieved 11 February SSRN The Guardian. Retrieved 28 July Cuomo Makes Sense on Fracking". Retrieved 18 December Times Union. Retrieved 25 January Gamper-Rabindran, Shanti, ed.
Ridlington, Elizabeth; John Rumpler 3 October Environment America. Texas DSHS. Cuadrilla Resources. Archived from the original PDF on 15 February Science of the Total Environment. Bibcode : ScTEn. Retrieved 10 October Fernandez, John Michael; Gunter, Matthew. Houston Advanced Research Center. Archived from the original PDF on 27 May Abdalla, Charles W.
Penn State Extension. Retrieved 11 October Arthur, J. Daniel; Langhus, Bruce; Alleman, David Howe, J. Cullen; Del Percio, Stephen. Molofsky, L. Oil and Gas Journal.
IEA World Energy Outlook Archived from the original on 19 October Retrieved 4 November Moniz, Ernest J. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original PDF on 12 March Retrieved 1 June Biello, David 30 March Retrieved 23 March Schmidt, Charles 1 August Allen, David T. Daniel; Lamb, Brian K. Kassotis, Christopher D. Wade; Hormann, Annette M. March Chalupka, S. ProQuest Smith, S. EHS Today. Ohio Department of Natural Resources.
Archived from the original PDF on 8 May Retrieved 29 June Spath, PhD, P. State of California Department of Health Services. Archived from the original PDF on 23 September Retrieved 7 October Examples of human activities that may lead to radionuclide exposure include mining, milling, and processing of radioactive substances; wastewater releases from the hydraulic fracturing of oil and natural gas wells Mining and hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking", can concentrate levels of uranium as well as radium, radon, and thorium in wastewater Rachel Maddow, Terrence Henry 7 August Rachel Maddow Show: Fracking waste messes with Texas video.
Event occurs at — Cothren, Jackson. Scranton Times-Tribune. Archived from the original PDF on 27 December Retrieved 27 December Janco, David F. Order: Atlas Miller 42 and 43 gas wells; Aug investigation; supplied temporary buffalo for two springs, ordered to permanently replace supplies PDF Report.
Lustgarten, Abrahm 21 June Leaking injection wells may pose a risk — and the science has not kept pace with the growing glut of wastewater". Rabinowitz, Peter M.
Meeting of the American Institute of Professional Geologists. Pittsburgh : ALL Consulting. Archived from the original PDF on 20 January Retrieved 9 May Archived from the original PDF on 26 April Osborn, Stephen G. Nicholas St. Fleur 19 December The Atlantic. Gallegos, T. Varela Geological Survey. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hydraulic fracturing. Wikinews has related news: Disposal of fracking wastewater poses potential environmental problems.
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Tower defense TD is a subgenre of strategy games where the goal is to defend a player's territories or possessions by obstructing the enemy attackers or by stopping enemies from reaching the exits, usually achieved by placing defensive structures on or along their path of attack.
Tower defense is seen as a subgenre of real-time strategy video games , due to its real-time origins, [2] [3] even though many modern tower defense games include aspects of turn-based strategy. Strategic choice and positioning of defensive elements is an essential strategy of the genre. The tower defense genre can trace its lineage back to the golden age of arcade video games in the s. The object of the arcade game Space Invaders , released in , was to defend the player's territory represented by the bottom of the screen against waves of incoming enemies.
The game featured shields which could be used to strategically obstruct enemy attacks on the player and assist the player in defending their territory, though not to expressly protect the territory. The game Missile Command changed that by giving shields a more strategic role. In the game, players could obstruct incoming missiles, and there were multiple attack paths in each attack wave.
The innovation was ahead of its time and anticipated the genre's later boom, which was paved by the wide adoption of the computer mouse.
Additionally, in Missile Command , the sole target of the attackers is the base, not a specific player character. For these reasons, some regard it as the first true game in the genre. While later arcade games like Defender and Choplifter lacked the strategy element of Missile Command , they began a trend of games that shifted the primary objective to defending non-player items.
In these games, defending non-players from waves of attackers is key to progressing. The concept of waves of enemies attacking the base in single file in this case AT-ATs proved a formula that was subsequently copied by many games as the shift from arcade to PC gaming began. Players were now able to choose from different methods of obstructing attackers' progress. With their fixed sprite cells with binary states, games with waves of attackers following fixed paths were able to make use of the technical limitations of the platform yet proved simple and enjoyable to casual gamers.
Vermin , one of the first, had players with defending the garden a theme followed by many later games from relentless horde of moles. The following years saw a flood of similar titles, including Manhole , Parachute , and Popeye The later titles utilized multiple articulating screens to increase the difficulty for players.
With two screens these games introduced basic resource management e. Green House was another popular two screen game in which players use clouds of pesticide spray to protect flowers from waves of attacking insects. Despite the early rush of archetypal titles, ultimately there was a general decline in fixed-cell games, due to their technical limitations, simplistic gameplay, and the rise of personal computers and handhelds the Game Boy ; correspondingly, this genre also declined.
A rare exception was Safebuster multi-screen in which the player protects a safe from a thief trying to blow it up. By the mid s, the strategy elements began to further evolve. Early PC gaming examples include the Commodore 64 titles Gandalf the Sorcerer , a shooter with tower defense elements, and Imagine Software 's release Pedro. Pedro , a garden defense game, introduced new gameplay elements, including different enemy types as well as the ability to place fixed obstructions, and to build and repair the player's territory.
Rampart , released in , is generally considered to have established the prototypical tower defense. In addition, it has distinct phases of build, defend and repair. These are now staple gameplay elements of many games in the genre. It was also one of the first multiplayer video games of its kind. While Rampart was popular, similar games were rarely seen until the widespread adoption of the computer mouse on the PC.
Dungeon Keeper had players defend the Dungeon Heart, a gigantic gem at the centre of your dungeon, which, if destroyed, would cause the player to lose the game. As real-time strategy games gained popularity in PC gaming , many introduced tower defense modes in their gameplay, particularly in multiplayer.
Between and , the genre became a phenomenon, due in part to the popularity of the tower defense mode in real time strategy games, but mainly due to the rise of Adobe Flash independent developers as well as the emergence of major smartphone app stores from Apple and Google. The first stand-alone browser games emerged in The genre's success also led to new releases on PC and video game consoles.
GauntNet was released in April Zombies released in May was another highly popular tower defense which became a successful series on mobile devices. With the arrival of Apple's App Store tower defense developers adapted quickly to the touchscreen interface and the titles were among the most downloaded, many of them ported directly from Flash. Among the more notable include Kingdom Rush , first released in , which sold more than seventeen million copies both on App store and Play store.
By the end of the boom, most tower defense games were still stuck in the side scrolling, isometric, or top-down perspective graphical medium.
Iron Grip: Warlord , released in November, unsuccessfully pioneered the first person perspective shooter with the genre. Dungeon Defenders , released in October , was one of the first tower defense games to bring the genre to the third person perspective. It sold over , copies in first two weeks of release [26] and over , copies by the end of The title Sanctum , and its sequel popularized the first person shooter hybrid that was pioneered by these earlier games.
Anomaly: Warzone Earth released in introduced a variation of gameplay which has been described as "reverse tower defense", [29] "tower attack", [30] and "tower offense".
Sequels and other games have since experimented further with both styles of tower defense. Around this period the genre matured, gaining recognition as a distinct sub-genre of strategy games and returning in numerous upgraded versions. Chain Chronicle and CastleStorm were released in Plants vs. Zombies 2 came out and Prime World: Defenders featured deck-building mechanics.
Deathtrap and Krinkle Krusher were first published in With the advent of social networking service applications, such as the Facebook Platform , tower defense has become a popular genre with titles such as Bloons TD and Plants vs. Zombies Adventures making the transition to turn-based play. On the platform Roblox , many Tower Defense games have been created, the most notable being Tower Defense Simulator as well as the first famous one being Tower Battles These games are mostly 3D and multiplayer based, with features like matchmaking and elevators to pair users up.
What distinguishes tower defense base defending games from other base defending games such as Space Invaders , or other games where bases are defended is the player's ability to strategically place, construct or summon obstructive constructions and constructive obstructions in the path of attacking enemies.
In a tower defense, the player's main character is often invincible, as their primary objective is the survival of the base rather than the player. Many modern tower defense games evolved from real-time to turn-based, cycling through distinct gameplay phases such as build, defend, repair, and celebrate.
Many games, such as Flash Element Tower Defense feature enemies that scamper through a "maze", which allows the player to strategically place "towers" for optimal effectiveness. Often an essential strategy is "mazing", the tactic of creating a long, winding path of towers or "maze" to lengthen the distance the enemies must traverse to get past the defense.
Sometimes "juggling" is possible by alternating between barricading an exit on one side and then the other side to cause the enemies to path back and forth until they are defeated. Some games also allow players to modify the attack strategy used by towers to be able to defend for an even more tantalizingly reasonable price. The degree of the player's control or lack thereof in such games also varies, from games where the player controls a unit within the game world, to games where the player has no direct control over units at all, or even no control over the game whatsoever.
A common theme in tower defense games to have occasional "air" units which ignore the layout of the board i. Some tower defense games or custom maps also require the player to not only defend their own board but send out enemies to attack their opponents' game boards or opponent-controlled areas of a common game board in return. Such games are also known as tower wars game boards. The corporation is reported to have started enforcing the trademark: in early , developers of games on Apple 's App Store reported receiving messages requiring name changes for their games, citing trademark violation.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Subgenre of strategy video game. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. Learn how and when to remove these template messages.
This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations.
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Damon Reece. April 27, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on March 29, Retrieved March 29, Archived from the original on August 4, Archived from the original on October 14, Alex Rubens. August 15, Archived from the original on June 7, Retrieved June 12, Video Review. IPC Business Press. ISSN October World of Spectrum. Archived from the original on June 6, Retrieved December 19, Archived from the original on February 3,
Tony Hawk - Wikipedia.Tower defense
With the arrival of Apple's App Store tower defense developers adapted quickly to the touchscreen interface and the titles were among the most downloaded, many of them ported directly from Flash.
Among the more notable include Kingdom Rush , first released in , which sold more than seventeen million copies both on App store and Play store. By the end of the boom, most tower defense games were still stuck in the side scrolling, isometric, or top-down perspective graphical medium. Iron Grip: Warlord , released in November, unsuccessfully pioneered the first person perspective shooter with the genre. Dungeon Defenders , released in October , was one of the first tower defense games to bring the genre to the third person perspective.
It sold over , copies in first two weeks of release [26] and over , copies by the end of The title Sanctum , and its sequel popularized the first person shooter hybrid that was pioneered by these earlier games. Anomaly: Warzone Earth released in introduced a variation of gameplay which has been described as "reverse tower defense", [29] "tower attack", [30] and "tower offense".
Sequels and other games have since experimented further with both styles of tower defense. Around this period the genre matured, gaining recognition as a distinct sub-genre of strategy games and returning in numerous upgraded versions.
Chain Chronicle and CastleStorm were released in Plants vs. Zombies 2 came out and Prime World: Defenders featured deck-building mechanics. Deathtrap and Krinkle Krusher were first published in With the advent of social networking service applications, such as the Facebook Platform , tower defense has become a popular genre with titles such as Bloons TD and Plants vs.
Zombies Adventures making the transition to turn-based play. On the platform Roblox , many Tower Defense games have been created, the most notable being Tower Defense Simulator as well as the first famous one being Tower Battles These games are mostly 3D and multiplayer based, with features like matchmaking and elevators to pair users up.
What distinguishes tower defense base defending games from other base defending games such as Space Invaders , or other games where bases are defended is the player's ability to strategically place, construct or summon obstructive constructions and constructive obstructions in the path of attacking enemies. In a tower defense, the player's main character is often invincible, as their primary objective is the survival of the base rather than the player.
Many modern tower defense games evolved from real-time to turn-based, cycling through distinct gameplay phases such as build, defend, repair, and celebrate. Many games, such as Flash Element Tower Defense feature enemies that scamper through a "maze", which allows the player to strategically place "towers" for optimal effectiveness. Often an essential strategy is "mazing", the tactic of creating a long, winding path of towers or "maze" to lengthen the distance the enemies must traverse to get past the defense.
Sometimes "juggling" is possible by alternating between barricading an exit on one side and then the other side to cause the enemies to path back and forth until they are defeated. Some games also allow players to modify the attack strategy used by towers to be able to defend for an even more tantalizingly reasonable price. The degree of the player's control or lack thereof in such games also varies, from games where the player controls a unit within the game world, to games where the player has no direct control over units at all, or even no control over the game whatsoever.
A common theme in tower defense games to have occasional "air" units which ignore the layout of the board i. Some tower defense games or custom maps also require the player to not only defend their own board but send out enemies to attack their opponents' game boards or opponent-controlled areas of a common game board in return.
Such games are also known as tower wars game boards. The corporation is reported to have started enforcing the trademark: in early , developers of games on Apple 's App Store reported receiving messages requiring name changes for their games, citing trademark violation.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Subgenre of strategy video game. This article has multiple issues. This semi-precious wooden coffee table "Courbaril" was brought back from French Guiana in It is in very good condition and very rare, not to say not to be found in metropolitan France and even We also do tutoring from CP primary to baccalaureat's grade. We remain at your disposal. Guadeloupe Scribe Business Administration is a leading young business in marketing, communication and press relation at your services.
With a past experience in graphic design proficiency, the team is waiting to boost your business on the market undoubtedly. Our services Business bilingual secretary available to all types of businesses - Special business package November 16, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Retrieved 25 February Games Radar. Archived from the original on January 11, Retrieved January 10, October 18, Archived from the original on October 10, Mattel Hyperscan". Electronic Gaming Monthly. Ziff Davis. August April October Archived from the original on December 17, February SNK Playmore.
Archived from the original on February 29, June Retrieved October 9, IGN UK. November 2, The 64 Dream. Retro Gamer. Future Publishing. Archived from the original on April 6, Retrieved May 4, The Verge. Retrieved May 22, The New York Times. Flop with CD-Interactive Product". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved April 29, Ars Technica. Retrieved May 13, PlayStation Blog blog. October 27, Retrieved October 27, June 21, Retrieved August 2, See lines 6 and 18 for units sold in Japan and other regions, respectively.
Interviewed by Ken Horowitz. Archived from the original on March 4, Retrieved May 19, Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. May Imagine Publishing 69 : 46— US Gamer. Retrieved September 9, Home Video Game Market".
Spring Video Game Console Industry". California Management Review. JSTOR S2CID Lack of distribution may have contributed significantly to the failure of the Sega Saturn to gain an installed base. Sega had limited distribution for its Saturn launch, which may have slowed the building of its installed base both directly because consumers had limited access to the product and indirectly because distributors that were initially denied product may have been reluctant to promote the product after the limitations were lifted.
Nintendo, by contrast, had unlimited distribution for its Nintendo 64 launch, and Sony not only had unlimited distribution, but had extensive experience with negotiating with retailing giants such as Wal-Mart for its consumer electronics products. Dow Jones Newswires. Strategy Informer. Retrieved December 18, Archived from the original on May 30, Archived from the original on September 29, Retrieved June 9, Iwata : The other things is, shortly after the Wii console was released, people in the gaming media and game enthusiasts started recognizing the Wii as a casual machine aimed toward families, and placed game consoles by Microsoft and Sony in a very similar light with each other, saying these are machines aimed towards those who passionately play games.
Iwata : On the other hand, I certainly do not think that Wii was able to cater to every gamer's needs, so that's also something I wanted to resolve. Retrieved June 4, Retrieved January 18, USA Today. Retrieved January 17, The Guardian. Retrieved February 5, Retrieved July 7, January 31, Retrieved January 31, January 30, Retrieved January 30, Retrieved November 10, Retrieved January 1, BBC News. Bill Huffman. Jump Button magazine. Computer and Video Games.
Archived from the original on March 16, Retrieved May 20, Archived from the original on June 28, Retrieved May 14, Archived from the original on 22 December Retrieved 14 January Archived from the original on February 2, Thomas November 9, Archived from the original on June 10, April 6, Retrieved May 16, So why is its future so cloudy?
Dallas Observer. Archived from the original on 18 June Playstation Lifestyle. Noire ships 4 million says Take-Two". Important material properties of the fluid include viscosity , pH , various rheological factors , and others. Water is mixed with sand and chemicals to create hydraulic fracturing fluid. Approximately 40, gallons of chemicals are used per fracturing. The most common chemical used for hydraulic fracturing in the United States in — was methanol , while some other most widely used chemicals were isopropyl alcohol , 2-butoxyethanol , and ethylene glycol.
For slickwater fluids the use of sweeps is common. Sweeps are temporary reductions in the proppant concentration, which help ensure that the well is not overwhelmed with proppant.
An enzyme acts as a catalyst for breaking down the gel. Sometimes pH modifiers are used to break down the crosslink at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job, since many require a pH buffer system to stay viscous.
Some but not all injected fluid is recovered. This fluid is managed by several methods, including underground injection control, treatment, discharge, recycling, and temporary storage in pits or containers. New technology is continually developing to better handle waste water and improve re-usability. Measurements of the pressure and rate during the growth of a hydraulic fracture, with knowledge of fluid properties and proppant being injected into the well, provides the most common and simplest method of monitoring a hydraulic fracture treatment.
This data along with knowledge of the underground geology can be used to model information such as length, width and conductivity of a propped fracture. Injection of radioactive tracers along with the fracturing fluid is sometimes used to determine the injection profile and location of created fractures. A new technique in well-monitoring involves fiber-optic cables outside the casing.
Using the fiber optics, temperatures can be measured every foot along the well — even while the wells are being fracked and pumped. By monitoring the temperature of the well, engineers can determine how much hydraulic fracturing fluid different parts of the well use as well as how much natural gas or oil they collect, during hydraulic fracturing operation and when the well is producing.
For more advanced applications, microseismic monitoring is sometimes used to estimate the size and orientation of induced fractures. Microseismic activity is measured by placing an array of geophones in a nearby wellbore. By mapping the location of any small seismic events associated with the growing fracture, the approximate geometry of the fracture is inferred.
Tiltmeter arrays deployed on the surface or down a well provide another technology for monitoring strain [88]. Microseismic mapping is very similar geophysically to seismology. In earthquake seismology, seismometers scattered on or near the surface of the earth record S-waves and P-waves that are released during an earthquake event.
This allows for motion [ clarification needed ] along the fault plane to be estimated and its location in the Earth's subsurface mapped.
Hydraulic fracturing, an increase in formation stress proportional to the net fracturing pressure, as well as an increase in pore pressure due to leakoff. The increases in pore water pressure and in formation stress combine and affect weaknesses near the hydraulic fracture, like natural fractures, joints, and bedding planes.
Different methods have different location errors [ clarification needed ] and advantages. Accuracy of microseismic event mapping is dependent on the signal-to-noise ratio and the distribution of sensors. Accuracy of events located by seismic inversion is improved by sensors placed in multiple azimuths from the monitored borehole. In a downhole array location, accuracy of events is improved by being close to the monitored borehole high signal-to-noise ratio. Monitoring of microseismic events induced by reservoir [ clarification needed ] stimulation has become a key aspect in evaluation of hydraulic fractures, and their optimization.
The main goal of hydraulic fracture monitoring is to completely characterize the induced fracture structure, and distribution of conductivity within a formation. Geomechanical analysis, such as understanding a formations material properties, in-situ conditions, and geometries, helps monitoring by providing a better definition of the environment in which the fracture network propagates.
This can be monitored using multiple types of techniques to finally develop a reservoir model than accurately predicts well performance. Since the early s, advances in drilling and completion technology have made horizontal wellbores much [ clarification needed ] more economical. Horizontal wellbores allow far greater exposure to a formation than conventional vertical wellbores.
This is particularly useful in shale formations which do not have sufficient permeability to produce economically with a vertical well. Such wells, when drilled onshore, are now usually hydraulically fractured in a number of stages, especially in North America. The type of wellbore completion is used to determine how many times a formation is fractured, and at what locations along the horizontal section.
In North America, shale reservoirs such as the Bakken , Barnett , Montney , Haynesville , Marcellus , and most recently the Eagle Ford , Niobrara and Utica shales are drilled horizontally through the producing intervals, completed and fractured. The wellbore for a plug-and-perf job is generally composed of standard steel casing, cemented or uncemented, set in the drilled hole. Once the drilling rig has been removed, a wireline truck is used to perforate near the bottom of the well, and then fracturing fluid is pumped.
Then the wireline truck sets a plug in the well to temporarily seal off that section so the next section of the wellbore can be treated. Another stage is pumped, and the process is repeated along the horizontal length of the wellbore. The wellbore for the sliding sleeve [ clarification needed ] technique is different in that the sliding sleeves are included at set spacings in the steel casing at the time it is set in place.
The sliding sleeves are usually all closed at this time. When the well is due to be fractured, the bottom sliding sleeve is opened using one of several activation techniques [ citation needed ] and the first stage gets pumped. Once finished, the next sleeve is opened, concurrently isolating the previous stage, and the process repeats. For the sliding sleeve method, wireline is usually not required. These completion techniques may allow for more than 30 stages to be pumped into the horizontal section of a single well if required, which is far more than would typically be pumped into a vertical well that had far fewer feet of producing zone exposed.
Hydraulic fracturing is used to increase the rate at which subtances such as petroleum or natural gas can be recovered from subterranean natural reservoirs.
Reservoirs are typically porous sandstones , limestones or dolomite rocks, but also include "unconventional reservoirs" such as shale rock or coal beds.
Hydraulic fracturing enables the extraction of natural gas and oil from rock formations deep below the earth's surface generally 2,—6, m 5,—20, ft , which is greatly below typical groundwater reservoir levels. At such depth, there may be insufficient permeability or reservoir pressure to allow natural gas and oil to flow from the rock into the wellbore at high economic return.
Thus, creating conductive fractures in the rock is instrumental in extraction from naturally impermeable shale reservoirs. Permeability is measured in the micro darcy to nanodarcy range. So-called "super fracking," creates cracks deeper in the rock formation to release more oil and gas, and increases efficiency.
While the main industrial use of hydraulic fracturing is in stimulating production from oil and gas wells, [99] [] [] hydraulic fracturing is also applied:. Since the late s, hydraulic fracturing has been used, in some cases, to increase the yield of drinking water from wells in a number of countries, including the United States, Australia, and South Africa. Hydraulic fracturing has been seen as one of the key methods of extracting unconventional oil and unconventional gas resources.
According to the International Energy Agency , the remaining technically recoverable resources of shale gas are estimated to amount to trillion cubic metres 7, trillion cubic feet , tight gas to 76 trillion cubic metres 2, trillion cubic feet , and coalbed methane to 47 trillion cubic metres 1, trillion cubic feet.
As a rule, formations of these resources have lower permeability than conventional gas formations. Therefore, depending on the geological characteristics of the formation, specific technologies such as hydraulic fracturing are required.
Although there are also other methods to extract these resources, such as conventional drilling or horizontal drilling, hydraulic fracturing is one of the key methods making their extraction economically viable. The multi-stage fracturing technique has facilitated the development of shale gas and light tight oil production in the United States and is believed to do so in the other countries with unconventional hydrocarbon resources.
A large majority of studies indicate that hydraulic fracturing in the United States has had a strong positive economic benefit so far. Most of this benefit is within the consumer and industrial sectors due to the significantly reduced prices for natural gas. The primary benefit of hydraulic fracturing is to offset imports of natural gas and oil, where the cost paid to producers otherwise exits the domestic economy.
Research suggests that hydraulic fracturing wells have an adverse impact on agricultural productivity in the vicinity of the wells. This effect becomes smaller and weaker as the distance between township and wells increases.
An anti-fracking movement has emerged both internationally with involvement of international environmental organizations and nations such as France and locally in affected areas such as Balcombe in Sussex where the Balcombe drilling protest was in progress during mid According to Matt Pitzarella, the communications director at Range Resources , employees trained in the Middle East have been valuable to Range Resources in Pennsylvania, when dealing with emotionally charged township meetings and advising townships on zoning and local ordinances dealing with hydraulic fracturing.
There have been many protests directed at hydraulic fracturing. For example, ten people were arrested in during an anti-fracking protest near New Matamoras, Ohio, after they illegally entered a development zone and latched themselves to drilling equipment. The United States Department of State established the Global Shale Gas Initiative to persuade governments around the world to give concessions to the major oil and gas companies to set up fracking operations. Secret U. The US government project succeeded as many countries on several continents acceded to the idea of granting concessions for fracking; Poland , for example, agreed to permit fracking by the major oil and gas corporations on nearly a third of its territory.
In a number of European officials suggested that several major European protests against hydraulic fracturing with mixed success in Lithuania and Ukraine may be partially sponsored by Gazprom , Russia's state-controlled gas company. The New York Times suggested that Russia saw its natural gas exports to Europe as a key element of its geopolitical influence, and that this market would diminish if hydraulic fracturing is adopted in Eastern Europe, as it opens up significant shale gas reserves in the region.
Russian officials have on numerous occasions made public statements to the effect that hydraulic fracturing "poses a huge environmental problem". Maryland [] and Vermont have permanently banned hydraulic fracturing, and New York and North Carolina have instituted temporary bans. New Jersey currently has a bill before its legislature to extend a moratorium on hydraulic fracturing that recently expired. Although a hydraulic fracturing moratorium was recently lifted in the United Kingdom, the government is proceeding cautiously because of concerns about earthquakes and the environmental impact of drilling.
Hydraulic fracturing is currently banned in France and Bulgaria. Josh Fox 's Academy Award nominated film Gasland [] became a center of opposition to hydraulic fracturing of shale. The movie presented problems with groundwater contamination near well sites in Pennsylvania, Wyoming, and Colorado.
The film Promised Land , starring Matt Damon , takes on hydraulic fracturing. In January , Northern Irish journalist and filmmaker Phelim McAleer released a crowdfunded [] documentary called FrackNation as a response to the statements made by Fox in Gasland , claiming it "tells the truth about fracking for natural gas". The premiere corresponded with the release of Promised Land. In April , Josh Fox released Gasland 2 , his "international odyssey uncovering a trail of secrets, lies and contamination related to hydraulic fracking".
It challenges the gas industry's portrayal of natural gas as a clean and safe alternative to oil as a myth, and that hydraulically fractured wells inevitably leak over time, contaminating water and air, hurting families, and endangering the earth's climate with the potent greenhouse gas methane.
The film covers the politics, spiritual, scientific, medical and professional points of view on hydraulic fracturing. It also digs into the way the gas industry portrays hydraulic fracturing in their advertising. Typically the funding source of the research studies is a focal point of controversy. Concerns have been raised about research funded by foundations and corporations, or by environmental groups, which can at times lead to at least the appearance of unreliable studies.
There is concern over the possible adverse public health implications of hydraulic fracturing activity. In June Public Health England published a review of the potential public health impacts of exposures to chemical and radioactive pollutants as a result of shale gas extraction in the UK, based on the examination of literature and data from countries where hydraulic fracturing already occurs. Most evidence suggests that contamination of groundwater , if it occurs, is most likely to be caused by leakage through the vertical borehole.
Contamination of groundwater from the underground hydraulic fracturing process itself i. However, surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids or wastewater may affect groundwater, and emissions to air also have the potential to impact on health. Where potential risks have been identified in the literature, the reported problems are typically a result of operational failure and a poor regulatory environment.
A report prepared for the European Union Directorate-General for the Environment identified potential risks to humans from air pollution and ground water contamination posed by hydraulic fracturing. A study in The American Economic Review found that "additional well pads drilled within 1 kilometer of a community water system intake increases shale gas-related contaminants in drinking water.
A study conduced by Harvard T. Chan School of Public Health and published in Nature Energy found that elderly people living near or downwind of unconventional oil and gas development UOGD -- which involves extraction methods including fracking -- are at greater risk of experiencing early death compared with elderly persons who don't live near such operations.
Statistics collected by the U. Department of Labor and analyzed by the U. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show a correlation between drilling activity and the number of occupational injuries related to drilling and motor vehicle accidents, explosions, falls, and fires.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH identified exposure to airborne silica as a health hazard to workers conducting some hydraulic fracturing operations. Additionally, the extraction workforce is at increased risk for radiation exposure.
Fracking activities often require drilling into rock that contains naturally occurring radioactive material NORM , such as radon, thorium, and uranium. Another report done by the Canadian Medical Journal reported that after researching they identified 55 factors that may cause cancer, including 20 that have been shown to increase the risk of leukemia and lymphoma.
The Yale Public Health analysis warns that millions of people living within a mile of fracking wells may have been exposed to these chemicals. The potential environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing include air emissions and climate change, high water consumption, groundwater contamination, land use, risk of earthquakes, noise pollution, and various health effects on humans.
Hydraulic fracturing uses between 1. The possibility of groundwater contamination from brine and fracturing fluid leakage through old abandoned wells is low. In the United States there is over 12 million acres that are being used for fossil fuels. About 3.
This is equivalent of six Yellowstone National Parks. In addition, noise is created by continuous truck traffic sand, etc. In July , the US Federal Railroad Administration listed oil contamination by hydraulic fracturing chemicals as "a possible cause" of corrosion in oil tank cars. Hydraulic fracturing has been sometimes linked to induced seismicity or earthquakes.
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